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Enlightenment, also known as the century of lights [1] and illustration, [2] [3] [4] [5] was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the eighteenth century, "The Age of Philosophy ". [6]

The Enlightenment included a series of ideas centered on reason as the main source of authority and legitimacy and advocated ideals such as freedom, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government, and church-state separation. [7] [8] In France, the central doctrines of the Enlightenment philosophers were individual freedom and religious tolerance as opposed to absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on scientific method and reductionism, coupled with the growing questioning of religious orthodoxy - an attitude captured by the phrase Sapere aude.

French historians have traditionally placed the Enlightenment period between 1715 (the year in which Louis XIV died) and 1789 (the beginning of the French Revolution). Some recent historians, however, argue for the 1620s, with the onset of the Scientific Revolution. Les philosophes (French for "the philosophers") of the period widely circulated their ideas through meetings in scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, cafes, and in printed books and pamphlets. Enlightenment ideas undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church and paved the way for the political revolutions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. A variety of nineteenth-century movements, including liberalism and neoclassicism, trace their intellectual heritage to the Enlightenment. [10]

The Age of Enlightenment was preceded and closely associated with the Scientific Revolution. [11] Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. [12] Leading Enlightenment figures included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, and Immanuel Kant. Some European rulers, including Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, and Frederick II of Prussia, tried to apply Enlightenment thinking about religious tolerance and politics, which became known as "enlightened absolutism." [13] Benjamin Franklin repeatedly visited Europe and actively contributed to the scientific and political debates and brought the new ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and then incorporated some of the Enlightenment ideals into the United States Declaration of Independence (1776). One of his peers, James Madison, incorporated these ideals into the United States Constitution during its conception in 1787. [14]

The most influential Enlightenment publication was Encyclopédie (Encyclopedia). Published between 1751 and 1772 in 35 volumes, it was compiled by Denis Diderot, Jean le Rond d'Alembert (until 1759) and a group of 150 scientists and philosophers. This helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment throughout Europe and beyond. [15] Other reference publications were the Dictionnaire philosophique de Voltaire (Philosophical Dictionary, 1764) and Philosophical Letters (1733); Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Rousseau's Inequality between Men (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776); and The Spirit of the Laws of Montesquieu (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played an important role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by the intellectual movement known as Romanticism.

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